P.O. Box 1522 Tel: 94112696981 E-mail:library@harti.lk Colombo, Sri Lanka. 94112696437 Fax: 94112692423. Web: www.harti.lk ADOPTION OF PARACHUTE TECHNOLOGY BY THE FARMERS IN ANURADHAPURA DISTRICT P.R. Weerakkody Sharmini K. Kumara W.D. Wickramasinghe HARTI mailto:library@harti.lk http://www.harti.lk Adoption of Parachute Technology by the Farmers in Anuradhapura District — P.R. Weerakkody ZL Sharmini K. Kumara W.D. Wickramasinghe 2 Research Report No: 140 July 2011 Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute 114, Wijerama Mawatha Colombo 7 Sri Lanka 2 3 7 2 5 \ LIBRARY \ HAF.T1 First Published: July 2011 © 2011, Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute Final typesetting and lay-out: Dilanthi Hewavitharana Cover page design: Udeni Karunaratne ISBN: 978-955-612-199-119-3 FOREWORD Technology transfer is a pre-requisite to achieve competitiveness and sustained success in agriculture. Suitability of such technologies to field conditions should also be assessed in order to ensure that they are not in conflict with environmental, socio-economic and other related aspects of fanning communities. Thus, the primary responsibility of researchers is to identify progress and setbacks of transfer and adoption of technologies and to initiate necessary measures to promote technology adoption. The main focus of this report has been to identify progress and setbacks of 'parachute method' which is a new technology invented by the Rice Research Institute at Batalagoda for broadcasting of seedlings in paddy cultivation. Study reveals that the technology has been popular among the farming community due to its high yielding potential resulting from undisturbed seedling vigour and increased number of tillers in a plant. The study illustrates that timely water availability is a critical factor for farmers to adopt this technology. In addition, the dissemination process should include regular awareness creation and skills development that will contribute to attitudinal and behavioural changes among the farmers. Farmers should be equipped with adequate knowledge and skills and sufficient inputs should be ensured to them to facilitate the adoption of new technology. This will enable rapid penetration of the technology to the farming community within a short period and minimum effort by the extension personnel. I hope this report will be useful to extension staff as well as to researchers and policy planners. Lalith Kantha Jayasekara Director/HARTI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are extremely grateful to the Mr. Lalith Kantha Jayasekara, present Director of Hector Kobekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute (HARTI) for encouraging us to bring out this report as a HARTI publication and to Dr. L.P Rupasena, the Deputy Director (Research) of the HARTI. A special note of appreciation goes to Mr. S. N. Jayawardene, Research Officer, Rice Research Development Institute, Batalagoda for providing information and photographs on the parachute technology. We are very much indebted to the farming communities in Nachchaduwa scheme and Mahaweli 'H' system for sharing their valuable time to provide data and information during the field survey conducted by the HARTI. Our thanks are also due to the extension staff in the two study areas for their invaluable assistance extended to complete this study. Special word of thanks is due to Mr. W. H. P. Yasaratne, Data Assistant of HARTI Data Bank who bore the entire responsibility of supervision of field survey. We are also very much indebted to casual investigators who played the vital role of data collection. We appreciate the services of Mr. M.D.L. Senarath, Senior Analyst Programmer, and the staff in the HARTI Data Bank for their services in data entry and analysis. We are very much indebted to Prof. W. I. Siriweera for his excellent editorial assistance. Various assistance extended by G. M. Vijitha Padmini, K.G.D.K.S. Karunaratne and S. Suriyakumar of the Agricultural Resource Management Division are greatly appreciated. Thanks are also due to the publication and printing staff for their contribution to publish this report. Authors ii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Termed as parachute method, a seedling broadcasting technology of rice was introduced to major irrigated areas in the country by the Rice Research Institute (RRI) at Batalagoda. This technology known as a low cost and high yielding technology for rice establishment, was introduced to Mahaweli H system in 2004/05 maha season and to Nachchaduwa scheme in 2006/07 maha season in the Anuradhapura district. The main focus of this study was to learn the adoption behaviour of this newly introduced technology. Undisturbed seedling vigour, increased tillering and high yield are the particular characteristics of the parachute method. The study shows that there is a significant yield difference compared to broadcasting method indicating a 77.5% yield increase in the Mahaweli area. The binary logistic analysis used to find factors determining the adoption decision shows that farmer skills, labour availability, total land availability and input availability have a significant effect on adoption of parachute technology in Mahaweli areas. As revealed from Nachchaduwa scheme, uncertainty of water is a critical factor for non-adoption of this technology. Also, heavy rainfall is an obstacle for nursery management. Non-durability of trays, more time and labour needs for nursery management and inconvenience of nursery management are other constraints of parachute technology. The process of transferring the parachute method is constrained due to inadequacy of demonstrations, delays in conducting awareness programmes, poor farmer knowledge in obtaining trays, staff shortages leading to limited farm visits, lack of regular training on field application of parachute method and lack of feedback. Negative attitudes of the farmers both general and specific to the parachute technology have also constrained the dissemination of technologies within the farming community. Study emphasizes the need for dissemination of parachute technology among progressive and innovative farmers who have access to labour and who could afford additional cost of trays. Whilst skill training is a critical factor for wider adoption, proper awareness building followed by skill training, and solving problems relating to trays are required to promote the adoption of the parachute method. Water availability is a critical factor in this technology and therefore attempts to introduce the technology should be limited to cultivation seasons and areas where water availability is assured. In general, demonstrations are conducted in the fields of progressive farmers who adopt the technology with minimum failures. Survey findings uncover this as a successful process for dissemination of technologies throughout the farming community. Overall, the weak extension service in educating farmers through individual, group and mass methods, less access to input and output markets and lack of dissemination of new technologies are the major constraints in the present extension management system. Study recommends introduction of parachute method to other areas where water availability is assured. It also emphasizes the need for dissemination of parachute technology among progressive/innovative farmers who could afford the cost of trays and iii I who have access to sufficient labour. Whilst skill training is a critical factor for widespread adoption, proper awareness building followed by skill training is highly important. Ensuring timely availability of trays through action to promote the production or importation of durable and low cost trays are required to promote the adoption of the parachute method. Overall, strengthening of entire technology transfer process through innovative knowledge management systems is proposed. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Foreword i Acknowledgement ii Executive Summary iii Table of Contents v List of Tables vii List of Figures vii Chapter One Introduction 01 1.1 Background of the Study 01 1.2 Significance of the Study 01 1.3 Objectives 01 1.3.1 Specific Obj ecti ves 02 1.4 Study Limitations 02 1.5 Organization of the Report 02 Chapter Two Literature Review 03 2.1 Introduction 03 2.2 The Parachute Method 03 2.3 Innovation and the Process of Adoption/Diffusion 06 2.4 Constraints in the Technology Transfer Process 06 2.5 Present Extension Management Systems in the Non-Plantation Agriculture Sector in Sri Lanka 07 Chapter Three Methodology 11 3.1 Study Locations 11 3.2 Data Collection 11 3.3 Data Analysis and Presentation 12 3.3.1 Determinants of Parachute Technology Adoption by Mahaweli Paddy Farmers 12 Chapter Four Adoption of Parachute Method 15 4.1 Introduction 15 4.2 Adoption of Parachute Technology 15 4.3 Significance of Technology 16 4.4 Determinants of Parachute Technology adoption by Mahaweli Paddy Farmers using Logistic Regression 17 4.4.1 Input Availability 18 4.4.2 Total Land Availability 18 L I B R A R Y H A R T I 4.4.3 Labour Source 19 4.4.4 Role of Extension in Awareness Creation 20 4.4.5 Farmer Skills 22 4.4.6 Water Availability 23 4.5 Characteristics of Adopters in Nachchduwa Area 23 4.6 Non-adopters View on Parachute Method 27 4.7 Scale of Operation of Parachute Method 28 4.8 Reasons for Poor Dissemination of Parachute Method 29 4.9 Suggestions to Promote Parachute Method 31 4.9.1 Awareness Creation and Skill Training 31 4.9.2 Incentives for Farmers 32 4.9.3 Address Water Issues 32 4.9.4 Improve Tray Quality and Availability 32 4.9.5 Compulsory Use of New Technologies 33 4.10 Farmers View on Overall Extension System in the Area 3 3 Chapter Five Conclusions and Recommendations 35 5.1 Summary of Findings 3 5 5.2 Conclusions 36 5.3 Recommendations 37 References 38 vi LIST OF TABLES Page 3.1 Study Locations and Sample Size 11 4.1 Distribution of Sample by Awareness and Use of Parachute Method 15 4.2 Reasons for Using Parachute Method 16 4.3 Yield Comparison between Parachute and Broadcasting Methods 17 4.4 Model Test Statistics 18 4.5 Hosmer-Lemshow Test 18 4.6 Results of the Empirical Model 18 4.7 Comparison of Land Availability between Adopters and Non-adopters in Mahaweli 'FT System 19 4.8 Sources of Labour in Mahaweli 'H' System 20 4.9 Water Availability for Paddy Cultivation in Mahaweli 'H' System 23 4.10 Comparison of Land Availability between Adopters and Non-adopters in Nachchaduwa Area 24 4.11 Sources of Labour in Nachchaduwa Area 24 4.12 Farmer Exposure to Parachute Method in Nachchaduwa Area 25 4.13 Water Availability for Paddy Cultivation in Nachchaduwa Area 27 4.14 Reasons for not Using Parachute Method 27 4.15 Reasons for not Cultivating more Lands under Parachute Method 29 4.16 Reasons for Non-adoption of Parachute Method by Farmers 30 4.17 Suggestions to Promote Parachute Method 32 4.18 Major Weaknesses of Present Extension Service: From the Farmers Viewpoint 33 LIST OF FIGURES Page 2.1 The Present Extension Management System in the Non-Plantation Sector in Sri Lanka 07 2.2 Structure of the Mahaweli Extension Management System 08 2.3 Staff at a Block Office in Mahaweli 'FT Zone 09 2.4 Structure of the Provincial Extension Management System 09 2.5 Structure of the Inter-provincial Extension Management System 10 4.1 Year of Adoption of Parachute Method by Mahaweli Farmers 16 4.2 Frequency of Meetings between Farmers and Extension Officers in Mahaweli 'H' System 21 4.3 Frequency of Meetings between Farmers and Field Assistants in Mahaweli 'IT System 21 4.4 Level of Farmer Skills on Parachute Method in Mahaweli 'FT System 22 4.5 Frequency of Meetings between Farmers and Agricultural Instructors in Nachchaduwa Area 25 4.6 Frequency of Meetings between Farmers and Agricultural Research and Production Assistants in Nachchaduwa Area 26 4.7 Level of Farmer Skills on Parachute Method in Nachchaduwa Area 26 vii CHAPTER ONE Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study The dissemination and adoption o f appropriate technology and information provide the foundation for global competitiveness o f agriculture. This requires new knowledge and technologies to be assimilated, objectively evaluated, systematically transferred to end-users and rightly altered in accordance with the feedback from subsequent field application by the end-users namely the farmers. This cyclic process characterized by two-way communication is thus a pre-requisite to ensure the above competitiveness. Today, there is an ever-expanding knowledge base o f new agricultural technology and information that are being developed by various institutions dealing with the agriculture sector in the country. The generation o f technology and information is not always synonymous with their adoption and diffusion. This is due to attitudinal and behavioural aspects involved in the technology adoption process. The adoption o f research-based technology by the small farmers is, in many cases, a direct function of the extension educational programmes offered to them through field level extension agents. Under the current context, the three fold authorities, the Department of Agriculture ( D O A ) , Provincial Ministries o f Agriculture and Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka ( M A S L ) offer such extension/educational programmes to the local farmers. Termed as parachute method, a seedling broadcasting technology o f rice was introduced to major irrigated areas in the country by the Rice Research Institute (RRI) at Batalagoda. This technology known as a low cost and high yielding technology for rice establishment was introduced to Mahaweli 'H' system in 2004/05 maha season and to Nachchaduwa area in 2006/07 maha season through the Mahaweli and inter- provincial extension management systems in the Anuradhapura district. The main focus o f this study was to learn the adoption behavior o f this newly introduced technology in Anuradhapura district. 1.2 Significance of the Study The effective dissemination o f information and feedback from the end-user is very important in a number o f ways namely (a) evaluating the strengths and weaknesses o f a particular technology or information transferred to end-users (b) improving the productivity at farm level (c) understanding the viability o f such technologies under field conditions. The investment on new technologies might become uneconomical in the absence o f such information. The parachute method is known as a method o f rice establishment with a number o f positive features. However, there is lack o f information pertaining to attitudinal and behavioural aspects o f adoption o f this technology, means o f further improving it and its viability at farm level. This study attempts to fill the above information gap. 1.3 Objective The main objective o f this study is to understand the adoption behaviour o f parachute method by the farmers in major irrigated areas in Anuradhapura district. Qt&isisnGG LIBRARY HARTi 1.3.1 Specific Objectives 1. To study the attitudinal and behavioural aspects associated with the adoption ofparachute technology by farmers. 2. To identify constraints and weaknesses in the transfer o f parachute method and to suggest appropriate policy recommendations. 1.4 Study Limitations The rate o f adoption of parachute method in Nachchaduwa area was very low and therefore only a descriptive analysis is presented with regard to the Nachchaduwa area. 1.5 Organization of the Report This report is organized into five chapters. The introductory chapter discusses the problem which gave rise to the need for this study and the main and specific objectives. The next chapter provides literature on parachute technology, different types o f extension systems and constraints o f technology transfer process in Sri Lanka. The third chapter explains the methodology. The fourth chapter is devoted to presentation and analysis and the last chapter draws conclusions and sets out recommendations. 2 CHAPTER TWO Literature Review 2.1 Introduction This chapter provides an introduction into parachute method and discusses and reviews the processes o f adoption and diffusion o f technology, different types of extension systems in the country and constraints on technology transfer process in the country. 2.2 The Parachute Method Parachute method is a technique o f tossing rice seedlings, uprooted from plastic trays containing a soil ball, in a projectile manner into the puddled field. This technology as a method o f field establishment o f paddy was invented in China. The seedlings used for broadcasting are uprooted in such a way that sufficient soil adheres to the roots thereby dropping the seedlings upright. In order to ensure high percentage o f seedlings planted upright by the broadcasting method, flexible plastic trays are used for preparation o f nursery. A tray o f 56 cm length, 34cm width and 2cm height contains 4 3 4 small plugs and % o f each plug is filled with mud. Then two to three healthy seeds are broadcast in each plug o f the tray followed by placing o f a thin soil layer over it. About 306 trays and a 100m 2 nursery are sufficient for an area o f one acre. At the t ime o f the survey, the cost o f one tray was Rs. 27 .00 . Little water is applied to the nurseries when required. The nursery so grown would take only 1 2 - 1 8 days to attain a height o f about 20cm and can be easily uprooted. Raising o f seedling by using plastic trays not only save nursery bed area but also facilitate leveling o f seedling bed and saves labour needed to lift seedling for broadcasting. The technique facilitates early transplanting, improves nutrient and environmental conditions for the seedlings besides promoting early tillering. It was modified to suit Sri Lankan conditions by the Rice Research Institute (RRI) at Batalagoda. Originally in China, the whole process was mechanized. In Sri Lanka, the technology was modified so that the plants can be broadcast manually. The technology was first introduced to the areas where water availability is assured so as to avoid the risk o f yield losses due to shortage o f water. Therefore, the target groups were only paddy farmers in major irrigated areas w h o generally do not experience water shortages. It was popularized in Sri Lanka as a low cost alternative for high cost o f production due to high cost o f hybrid seed paddy. To reduce the cost o f seed, it was required to reduce the seed requirement for which transplanting is essential. Transplanting is not preferred by the farmer due to high demand o f labour. 3 Plastic Tray (By S. N. Jayawardene, RRDI, 2009) The parachute method is a better alternative for field establishment of paddy as it demands less labour. Whilst the technology was under experimentation, it was introduced to the field in 2005 in Ratnapura and Kegalle districts and gradually introduced islandwide. N o strong efforts were made to popularize this technology. Few training programmes have been conducted. Leaflets and demonstrations available at the RRI are the other means o f communication. 4 The Nursery (By S. N. Jayawardene, RRDI, 2009) 2.3 Innovation and the Process of Adoption/Diffusion "Adoption" refers to the stage in which a particular technology is selected for use by an individual. "Innovation" is similarly used with the nuance o f a new or "innovative" technology being adopted. "Diffusion" refers to the stage in which the technology spreads to general use and application. Diffusion o f an innovation occurs through a series o f steps. This process is a type of decision-making and occurs by a series o f communication channels over a period o f time. Ryan and Gross first indicated adoption as a process in 1943 (Rogers, 1962) where it is categorized as: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. This was later re-termed as: knowledge (first, one must hear about the innovation), persuasion, (second, they must be persuaded o f the value o f the innovation) decision (they then must decide to adopt it), implementation (the innovation must then be implemented) and confirmation (finally, the decision must be reaffirmed or rejected). The focus is on the user or adopter. The rate o f adoption is defined as the relative rate with which groups adopt an innovation. It is usually measured by the length o f time required by people to adopt an innovation (Rogers, 1962). Innovators are the first individuals to adopt an innovation. Innovators are wil l ing to take risks, are generally young in age, and have closest contact to scientific sources and interact with other innovators. Early adopters are the next category o f individuals to adopt an innovation. They too are typically younger in age, are more educated, and are more socially forward than late adopters (Rogers 1962, p. 185). Early majority are individuals who adopt an innovation after a varying degree o f time. This time o f adoption is significantly longer for the innovators and early adopters. Late majority are individuals who adopt an innovation after an average number have adopted the technology. These individuals approach an innovation with a high degree o f skepticism. Late majority are typically skeptical about an innovation, have below average social status, very little financial strength and keep contact with others in late majority and early majority. Laggards are individuals who are the last to adopt an innovation. Unlike some o f the previous categories, individuals in this category have an aversion to change-agents and tend to be advanced in age. Laggards typically tend to be focused on "traditions", have lowest social status, lowest financial fluidity, oldest o f all other adopters and are in contact with only family and close friends. A strong promotion is required to ensure the conditions necessary for technology adoption and diffusion. Training in its technical aspects and application to real needs is crucial for a technology to move beyond innovators and early adopters (Moore,1991) . Time for experimentation and development o f applications is essential. Successful users are required to motivate other users for the technology to be accepted by the majority. 2.4 Constraints in the Technology Transfer Process Under the T & V system the extension worker and Krushi Viyapthi Sevakas (KVSs) met farmers fortnightly and actively involved in the solving o f field extension issues. A l o n g with the termination o f the T&V system there was the conversion o f 2 ,300 K V S s to the position o f Grama Niladharis (GNs) , which led to the virtual breakdown in the link between farmers and the extension services because they were assigned with other duties in addition to the extension duties. Under this project, the Field 6 Extension Team (FET), which w a s represented by Agricultural Instructors, Coconut Development Officers, Livestock Development Instructors and Extension Officers w h o worked within a particular agrarian service centre level, had links with the farming community. Consequent to the withdrawal o f the Second Agricultural Extension Project (SAEP), a cadre o f village level officers was appointed and was later named Agricultural Research and Production Assistants (ARPAs) . Today, the A R P A s function as the link between farmers and agricultural support services including agricultural extension services. It is often claimed that time-to-time changes taking place in the field extension cadre have largely constrained the technology transfer process at the grass­ roots level. In addition, a number o f obstacles constrain the technology transfer process in the smallholding agriculture sector in the country. Tabor and Samaratunga (1994) have pointed out that the highly fragmented, partially decentralized and under­ financed nature o f the extension services has severely restricted the flow o f results in agricultural research and development. 2.5 Present Extension Management Systems in the Non-Plantation Agriculture Sector in Sri Lanka Agricultural Extension in non plantation agriculture sector in Sri Lanka is highly devolved and managed by three different authorities namely the Department of Agriculture (DOA) , Provincial Ministry o f Agriculture and Mahaweli Authority o f Sri Lanka (MASL) (Figure 2.1). 1. Provincial extension system is launched by the Provincial Department of Agriculture in each province. This includes areas under minor irrigation and rain-fed agriculture. 2. Inter-provincial extension system is launched by the Extension and Training Division (ETD) o f the Department o f Agriculture. This includes areas under minor irrigation and rain-fed agriculture and also major irrigation areas other than Mahaweli areas. 3. Mahaweli extension system is launched under the Mahaweli Authority o f Sri Lanka (MASL) in Mahaweli areas. Figure 2.1: The Present Extension Management System in the Non-Plantation Sector in Sri Lanka Present Extension Management X Provincial Inter-provincial : ; Mahaweli r. The Mahaweli extension system in each zone is as follows: The Director o f Agriculture is fol lowed by the Resident Project Manager (RPM) and Deputy Resident 7 Project Manager (DRPM). D R P M is responsible for many aspects as shown in Figure 2.2. Agricultural Officers ( A O s ) work under the D R P M and the lowest level officers are the Field Assistants w h o are the links between the farmer and the higher officials. Agricultural Officers also take over different subjects as given in Figure 2.2. If the Mahaweli "H" zone i j t ^ n into account, it is divided into 7 divisions and each division has a block manager ( r i ^ e 2.3). Generally each block has 4-5 units. In a unit, there is a Unit Manager under wno.r. q r e the Field Assistants. The Field Assistants are the final contact point to the farmer in inc. „h<"'n o f command. The Mahaweli farmers have no contact with A l o f the DOA. It is through tne Divisional Officer o f the Agrarian Service Centre as well as through the Assistant Commissioner, w h o attend seasonal meetings where decisions with regard to relevant subjects such as the distribution o f fertilizer subsidies are made. Figure 2.2: Structure of the Mahaweli Extension Management System Director o f Agriculture Resident Project Manager Crop + Animal Husbandry Agriculture (RPM) Technical Services Research & Development Deputy Resident Project Manger Administration (DRPM) Land Paddy and other activity Agriculture Officer (AO) Act on special Proj ect/Programme H o m e garden + Animal Other Crops Source: Mahaweli B lock Office, System 'H' , 2009 . gdiS5 2253(3 C3 8 LIBRARY HARTI Figure 2.3: Staff at a Block Office in Mahaweli 'H' Zone Block Manager Agriculture Officer (AO) Units Unit Manger Field Assistant (FA) Source: Mahaweli Block Office, System ' H \ 2009 . The figure 2.4 illustrates the structure o f the provincial system of extension management and figure 2.5 illustrates the inter-provincial extension system. Figure 2.4: Structure of the Provincial Extension Management System Chief Secretary Secretary (Agriculture) Provincial Director ic Deputy .Provincial Director Assistant Director of Agriculture Deputy Director/Assistant Director of" Agriculture - ! 1 (District) A ADA (Segment) Subject Matter Officer':" Source: Department o f Agriculture, 2 0 0 9 . Subject Matter Officer , Agriculture ^ 4;waast|uc'toB.,;. 9 Figure 2.S: Structure of the Inter-provincial Extension Management System Deputy Director Subject Matter Officer Paddy, Vegetables, Fruits, Plant Protection, Young Farmers, etc. SMO L Segment 1 ADA Segment 2 ADA Admin. & Finance Unit Agro-enterprise Dev. Unit Monitoring & Evaluation Unit 1 Segment 3 ADA Source: Department o f Agriculture, 2009. 10 CHAPTER THREE Methodology 3.1 Study Locations The parachute method has been introduced to major irrigated areas in Mahaweli and inter-provincial areas o f the Anuradhapura district. Having discussed with the officials o f higher management of Mahaweli and Inter-provincial extension management systems, Mahaweli 'H' system and Nachchaduwa major irrigation scheme were chosen as study locations for this study. Agriculture Instructor (Al) division is the primary unit o f study location in Nachchaduwa scheme and Mahaweli unit is the primary unit o f study location in Mahaweli I T system and the study sites were chosen as shown in the Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Study Locations and Sample Size Study Sites Sample size Shrawastipura and 66 Hidogama A l divisions in Nachchaduwa area Kalankutiya and 68 Huriigaswewa units in Mahaweli 'H' system Source: Survey Data, 2009. Farmers were chosen for data collection from the lists given by the respective Agriculture Officer (AO) and AIs in Mahaweli and Nachchaduwa areas respectively. Accordingly, 3 4 adopters and 34 non-adopters were chosen from Mahaweli 'H' system. However , in Nachchaduwa area there were only ten adopters of parachute technology in the A l divisions selected. In addition to these ten farmers, 56 adjoining farmers were interviewed to find out the reasons for non-adoption. The study was carried out in the year 2009 and the time specific data were gathered for 2008 /09 maha season. 3.2 Data collection The study employed three approaches for data collection: a. Personal interviews with key extension personnel and field level extension staff in the two locations. 1. Director Extension - Provincial Department o f Agriculture in the North Central Province. 2. Assistant Director - Department o f Agriculture- Anuradhapura district. 3. Agriculture Officer - Mahaweli 'H' System 4. Agriculture Instructors - Shrawastipura and Hidogama A l divisions o f Nachchaduwa area. 5. Mr. Senarath Jayawardena- Research Officer at Batalagoda Rice Research Station. 6. Field Assistants- Mahaweli 'H' System. 11 b. Sample Surveys Sample survey was largely designed to understand the vital component o f the technology adoption by the individuals through a structured questionnaire designed to achieve the study objectives. c. Collection of Secondary Information Data and information pertaining to different extension management systems were gathered through the review o f secondary sources o f information. Further, qualitative information was reviewed from published and unpublished sources o f information available. 3.3 Data Analysis and Presentation Data gathered from different sources have been analyzed through SPSS 16 statistical package. The analyzed data are presented in tabular and graphical forms. Both simple descriptive statistics and inferential statistics are presented in the report. A regression analysis has been carried out with regard to Mahaweli 'FT system in order to understand the determinants o f technology adoption by farmers. 3.3.1 Determinants of Parachute Technology Adoption by Mahaweli Paddy Farmers The factors affecting parachute technology adoption is econometrically estimated to test the significance o f farmer characteristics-personal, technology-related and extension related - on the adoption process. To adopt or not to adopt technology is a discrete choice. Discrete choice econometric models have been widely used in determining factors affecting discrete economic decisions. This study has utilized a logit model because the dependent variable is dichotomous and the model is computationally simpler. The logistic regression is part o f a category o f statistical mode l s called Generalized Linear Models. 'This broad class o f models includes ordinary regression and A N O V A as well as multivariate statistics such as A N C O V A . Logistic regression enables a researcher to predict a discrete outcome from a group o f variables that may be continuous, discrete, dichotomous or a mixture o f any o f these. The predictor variable in logistic regression can take any form. This is because logistic regression makes no assumption about the distribution o f the independent variables; -they do not have to be normally distributed, linearly related, or o f equal variance within each group. Dependent variable can take the value 1 with a probability o f adoption G (Pi), or the value 0 with probability o f non-adoption 1-0 (1-Pi). The relationship between the predictor and response variables is not a linear function in logistic regression. Instead, the logistic regression function is used, which is the logit transformation o f 0: Q _ C Where a = the constant o f the equation and, p = the co-efficient o f the predictor variables. 12 An alternative form o f the logistic regression equation is: 40 iogpt[i(x)]«iog; l-0(x)_ The logit model for the adoption o f parachute technology by Mahaweli paddy farmers is as follows: Mahaweli paddy farmer who adopted the parachute technology is given the value 1 and who did not adopt is given 0. The predictor variables were derived from the understanding that technology adoption is a function o f a range o f farmer characteristics -personal , technology related and extension related. Accordingly, personal characteristics such as total land availability (TLA), owned land availability (OLA), labour source (LS) and farmer skills on the technology (SKL) could have an impact on the adoption o f this technology by farmers. Water availability ( W A ) and input availability (IA) are the technology related characteristics that could have an impact on the technology adoption. Number o f extension methods for awareness building ( V A W ) , regularity o f contacts with Agricultural Officer (AO), regularity o f contacts with Field Assistant (FA) are extension related factors that could have an impact on technology adoption. The conceptual model o f parachute technology adoption by Mahaweli paddy farmers is: In (Pill-Pi) = a + pi T L A + p 2 O L A + p 3 W A + p 4 IA + (35 LS + p 6 V A W + p 7 A O + p 8 F A + p 9 S K L Where, Total land availability (TLA) in acres Owned land availability (OLA) in acres Water availability (WA): Adequate = 1 , In adequate = 0 Input availability (IA): Y e s = l , N o = 0 Labour source (LS): Hired only = 1 Hired & family/hired & attam = 2 Family & hired/Family & attam & hired = 3 Family only/Family & attamlattam & family = 4 Number o f extension methods for awareness building (VAW): One method only =1 T w o methods only =2 Three or more methods = 3 Regularity o f contacts with extension officer (AO): Occasionally = 1 Once a season = 2 More than once a season = 3 Once or more than once fortnightly = 4 Regularity o f contacts with field assistant (FA) O c c a s i o n a l l y 1 Once a season = 2 More than once a season = 3 Once or more than once fortnightly = 4 2 3 7 2 5' 13 LIBRARY HARTI Farmer skills on the parachute technology (SKL): Unskilled = 1 Semi-skilled = 2 Skilled = 3 Following statistical tests were carried out to select the significance o f the model. Wald Test: A Wald test is used to test the statistical significance o f each co-efficient (P) in the model. A Wald test calculates a Z statistic, which is: SE This z value is then squared, yielding a Wald statistic with a chi-square distribution. Likelihood-Ratio Test: The likelihood-ratio test uses the ratio o f the maximized value o f the likelihood function for the full model (Li) over the maximized value o f the likelihood function for the simpler model (Lo). The likelihood-ratio test statistic equals: - 2 . o g ( | ) = -2[MI 0)-.o g(I 1)]=-2(I 0-I,) This log transformation o f the likelihood functions yields a chi-squared statistic. This is the recommended test statistic to use when building a model through backward stepwise elimination. Hosmer-Lemshow Goodness of Fit Test: The Hosmer-Lemshow statistic evaluates the goodness-of-fit by creating 10 ordered groups o f subjects and then comparing the number actually in each group (observed) to the number predicted by the logistic regression model (predicted). Thus, the test statistic is a chi-square statistic with a desirable outcome o f non-significance, indicating that the model prediction does not significantly differ from the observed. The 10 ordered groups are created based on their estimated probability; those with estimated probability be low 0.1 form one group, and so on, up to those with probability 0.9 to 1.0. Each o f these categories is further divided into two groups based on the actual observed outcome variable (success, failure). The expected frequencies for each o f the cells are obtained from the model . If the model is good, then most o f the subjects with success are classified in the higher deciles of risk and those with failure in the lower deciles o f risk. 14 CHAPTER FOUR Adoption of Parachute Technology 4.1 Introduction This chapter describes factors affecting the adoption o f parachute technology in Mahaweli H and Nachchaduwa area. In particular the chapter describes determinants o f parachute technology adoption by Mahaweli 'H' farmers using logistic regression. 4.2 Adoption of Parachute Technology The sample from Mahaweli 'H' system consisted o f 68 farmers o f which 34 (50%) have used the parachute method and the rest have heard about the method (Table 4.1). Table 4.1: Distribution of Sample by Awareness and Use of Parachute Method Description Mahaweli H System Nachchaduwa Area Description No. % No. % Technology used 34 50 10 15 Heard about the technology but not used 34 50 44 67 Not Heard about the technology - - 12 18 Total 68 100 66 100 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . This technology has recently been introduced to Nachchaduwa area and therefore only ten farmers were found to be technology adopters. O f the rest the majority was aware o f the technology and 18 percent o f farmers had not heard about the technology. This technology has been first introduced to Mahaweli areas in 2004/2005 maha season and an idea o f innovativeness o f Mahaweli farmers towards taking up the new technology can be obtained from the data in Figure 4 .1 . 15 Figure 4.1: Year of Adoption of Parachute Method by Mahaweli Farmers 06/07 07/08 08/09 09 Yala Maha Maha Maha Year of Adoption Source: Survey Data, 2009 . 4.3 Significance of Technology Parachute is proven as a high yielding technology and this has compelled the farmers to use it as shown in the Table 4.2. The most prominent reason is that the farmers from both areas have received the message that the parachute method is a high yielding technology due to (a) lack o f stress on seedling/lack o f reduction o f seedling vigor (b) increased rate o f tillering as a result o f adequate space maintained and (c) being a comparatively good method for seed paddy production as a means o f income. It is important to mention that the majority o f the farmers in Mahaweli 'H' system who have used the parachute method (31 - 91.2%) have received high yields as they expected. Table 4.2: Reasons for Using Parachute Method Reason for Use Mahaweli Nachchaduwa Area 'H' System No. %* No. %** High yield 30 88.2 8 80 Low cost technology 26 76.4 9 90 Encouragement by Extension personnel 8 23.6 2 20 'Percentages out of the total number of farmers who used the technology =34 ••Percentages out of the total number of farmers who used the technology =10 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . 16 The results o f a paired sample mean comparison o f yield between parachute method and broadcasting method in Mahaweli 'H' system indicates that there is a significant difference at 9 5 % confidence interval. This indicates a 77 .5% yield increase (Table 4.3). Table 4.3: Yield Comparison between Parachute and Broadcasting Methods Indicator Parachute method Broadcasting Mean 159.78 bushels/ac 90 bushels/ac SD 44 28 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . Only three farmers have not been able to receive high yields due to over fertilization of nurseries, over spacing due to lack o f knowledge, damage caused to nurseries by rainy conditions, poor quality o f seed paddy causing diseases and limited skills for broadcasting o f seedlings. Further, they consider parachute method as a low cost technology due to: (a) less requirement o f labour as labour is not required for uprooting seedlings (b) less requirement o f seeds (c) low cost for weed control and as the method is convenient to control weeds and (d) less requirement o f labour for land preparation as small drainage channels are not prepared in the field and (e) easy water management. The encouragement from the extension personnel is another reason for using the technology. A s revealed through the discussions with extension personnel, the farmers who show interest to try on new technologies - innovative farmers - are chosen for demonstrations when they require transferring a new technology to the field. These innovators take up new technologies very devotedly and do wel l in the field. The demonstrational effect helps to diffuse the technology throughout the farming community. 4.4 Determinants of Parachute Technology adoption by Mahaweli Paddy Farmers using Logistic Regression The logit model on parachute technology adoption was empirically tested using data collected from Mahaweli paddy farmers to find the factors determining the adoption of parachute technology. The predictor variables tested in the model are total land availability (TLA), owned land availability (OLA), water availability (WA) , input availability (IA), labour source (LS), number o f extension methods for awareness building ( V A W ) , regularity of contacts with Agricultural Officer (AO), regularity o f contacts with Field Assistant (FA) and fanner skills on the technology (SKL). Logistic regression was performed through backward stepwise elimination and the goodness-of-fit o f the model was evaluated by likelihood-ratio test and Hosmer- Lemshow statistics (Tables 4.4 and 4.5). 17 Table 4.4: Model Test Statistics -2 L o g Likelihood Cox and Snell R square Nagelkerke R Square 62.071 .368 .491 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . Table 4.5: Hosmer-Lemshow Test Chi-square D f Sig. 6.44 8 .598 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . Of the predictor variables, owned land availability (OLA), scale o f operation (SCL), water availability (WA), number o f extension methods for awareness building ( V A W ) were removed from the best fitted model. The Table 4.6 shows the results o f the empirical model . Table 4.6: Results of the Empirical Model Variables B SE Wald df Sig. Exp (B) Input availability (IA) 0.792 0.674 1.382 1 0.240 2.209 Total land availability (TLA) 0.408 0.258 2 .497 1 0.114 1.504 Labour sources (LS) -0.595 0 .424 1.971 1 0.160 0.552 Meeting with A O (AO) -0.338 0.619 0.299 1 0.584 0.713 Meeting with FA (FA) 0.544 0.545 0.996 1 0.318 1.722 Farmer skills (SKL) 2.790 0.737 14.315 1 0.001 16.274 Constant -7.116 3.155 5.087 1 0.024 0.001 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . 4.4.1. Input Availability Availability o f inputs is a factor that triggers the adoption o f particular technology by farmers. The model statistics shows that the adoption o f parachute method has a positive link with input availability. 4.4.2 Total Land Availability The model describes that the total land availability is a related factor o f technology adoption. The variable shows a positive relationship that the adoption o f technology increases with the increase o f total land availability. This phenomenon can also be understood by examining the land availability data between adopters and non adopters in Mahaweli area. According to the data presented in the Table 4.7 the average total land availability o f adopters is higher than that o f non-adopters. 18 Table 4.7: Comparison of Land Availability between Adopters and Non-adopters in Mahaweli 'H' System Category of Farmers Own Land (ac) Total Land (ac) Category of Farmers Total Average Total Average Adopters 81 2.4 112 3.3 Non-adopters 70.75 2.0 87.0 2.6 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . The data reflects the general trend that could be observed in relation to technology dissemination at the grass roots level. There is a category o f fanners w h o shows increased interest to try out new technologies, when the extension personnel work with them. In general, these farmers cultivate more lands either in owned lands or under other ownership patterns and could be termed as progressive farmers who take risks. 4.4.3 Labour Source Labour availability is a pre-requisite for the adoption o f parachute method which is a labour intensive technology specially during nursery management. Therefore, the farmers were grouped into four categories in order to explore the effect o f labour availability on technology adoption, as described below. 1. Hired only: This category of farmers use only hired labour for paddy cultivation. These fanners are prominently large scale commercial farmers w h o use hired labour. 2. Hired and family/hired and attam: This category includes two farmer groups. The prominent labour source for both groups is still hired labour which is supplemented by family labour in one group and attam labour in the other group. 3. Family and hired/family, attam and hired: This category also includes two farmer groups but the prominent labour source for both groups is family labour supplemented by either hired labour or hired and attam labour. Hired labour is the last option. 4. Family only/family and attam/attam and family: This category includes three types o f farmers. All the farmer groups depend on family labour or attam labour. Hired labour use is not reported. Data in the Table 4.8 indicates that each type o f labour plays a vital role in paddy cultivation and depend on three sources o f labour,ie; family, attam and hired labour. 19 Table 4.8: Sources of Labour in Mahaweli 'H' System Labour Source Category Mahaweli 'H' System No. % 1. Hired only 1 1.5 2. Hired & family/hired & attam 15 22 .4 3. Family & hired/family, attam & hired 17 25 .4 4. Family only/family & attam /attam & family 34 50 .7 Total 67 100.0 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . It was expected that there would be a positive relationship between adoption and labour source under the given ranking order. In other words, it was expected that the adoption wil l increase with the availability o f unpaid labour - family and attam labour - as parachute is a labour demanding technology. However, as the model illustrates the farmers with access to hired labour are among the adopters than others with access to unpaid labour. In Mahaweli areas use o f hired labour in addition to unpaid labour signifies the affordability o f farmers. This again confirms the fact that the large scale commercial farmers w h o depend on hired labour are the category o f farmers who adopt this technology. 4.4.4 Role of Extension in Awareness Creation As witnessed by the model , meeting with Extension Officer (AO) has no positive impact on the technology adoption but the meeting with Field Assistant (FA) has a positive relationship. The reason for this difference is that the A O is responsible for overall extension service in the entire zone but the FA is responsible for specific skill development training at unit level. Therefore, the farmers have more frequent contacts with the FA than the A O . Data in Figures 4 .2 and 4.3 also confirms this situation. All the farmers from Mahaweli areas stated that initial awareness programmes were conducted at the zonal office o f Mahaweli 'H' system by the Extension Officer and at the field by the FA respectively. In addition, some farmers have also been exposed to other methods o f communication such as leaflets and television programmes. 20 Figure 4.2: Frequency of Meetings between Farmers and Extension Officers in Mahaweli 'H' System Once or More More than Once Once a Season Occasionally than Once a Season Fortnightly Frequency of meetings Source: Survey Data, 2009 . Figure 4.3: Frequency of Meetings between Farmers and Field Assistants in Mahaweli 'H' System 60 50 40 10 16% 16% 76% - - • !?" Wsmk • 6% mmmm Once or More More than Once a than Once Once a Season Fortnightly Season Frequency of Meetings Source: Survey Data, 2009 . 21 Overall, the role o f Extension Officer only as an awareness builder o f parachute technology is insignificant. The justification is that successful adoption o f parachute technology is not related to only awareness building. The adoption o f skilled technologies largely depends on the level o f farmer skills and thus, the important factor is training o f farmers through demonstrations. Parachute method being a skilled technology, just awareness creation is insufficient to attract the farming community. Therefore, it is a pre-requisite to encourage farmers through continuous training and exposure visits to the demonstration fields so as to ensure that the farmers are skilled on the use o f new technologies. 4.4.5 Farmer Skills This variable w a s expected to positively influence the technology adoption. The basis for this expectation was that for a farmer to adopt the parachute technology, he should be wel l trained on it. A s expected, the model describes farmer skills as the highest significant factor for adoption of parachute method with a positive coefficient o f 2.790. The Figure 4.4 indicates the level o f training o f the sample farmers in Mahaweli 'H ' system. Accordingly, more fanners in Mahaweli 'H' area are highly skilled. Therefore, the role o f extension in terms of skill development is a pre­ requisite for the adoption o f parachute technology. Figure 4.4: Level of Farmer Skills on Parachute Methodin Mahaweli 'H' System 60 52% 50 A 40 A 2 37% a 20 A 11% 10 A o No skills Semi-skilled Highly Skilled Level of Skills Source: Survey Data, 2009. LIBRARY 22 HARTI 4.4.6 Water Availability The parachute method is largely recommended for maha season in major irrigation areas. Sources revealed that it has been popularized only in the areas where water is assured for paddy cultivation. This is a disadvantage o f parachute technology compared to broadcasting method, the advantage o f which is that whenever water is issued, the cultivation can be completed within a few days after land preparation is done fast. However, the parachute method is not such a fast method and it requires nursery preparation and management before field establishment. Therefore, assured water availability is essential for the adoption o f parachute method. A s revealed by the survey, water availability for paddy cultivation for these fanners slightly varies by season (Table 4.9). However, 98 .5% farmers receive sufficient water for cultivation during the maha season with the rest o f the farmers not receiving adequate water even in the maha season. Water availability in the yala season appears to be limited as only 31 farmers (45.6%) in Mahaweli had received sufficient water. For the rest, water is a limiting factor. Table 4.9: Water Availability for Paddy Cultivation in Mahaweli 'H' System Water Availability in Farmers No. % Yala Season 1. Inadequate 31 45.6 2. AdequateTotal 37 54.4 68 100.0 Maha Season 1. Adequate 67 98.5 2. Inadequate 1 1.5 3. Total 68 100.0 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . 4.5 Characteristics of Adopters in Nachchaduwa Area Due to limited number o f adopters in Nachchaduwa area, the statistical models were not used for the analysis. The following characteristics distinguish between adopters and non- adopters. Land Availability The Table 4 .10 presents the land availability data o f both adopters and non-adopters in Nachchaduwa area. Data shows that total land availability o f adopters is higher than that o f non-adopters as in the case o f Mahaweli 'H' system. 23 Table 4.10: Comparison of Land Availability between Adopters and Non- adopters in Nachchaduwa Area Category Own Land (ac) Total Land (ac) Category Total Average Total Average Adopters 37.0 3.7 73 7.3 Non-adopters 143.0 2.6 132 2.4 Source: Survey Data, 2 0 0 9 . Labour Availability Parachute method is a labour intensive technology. Thus, labour availability is a pre­ requisite for adoption. Data in the Table 4.11 indicates that each type o f labour plays a vital role in paddy cultivation in Nachchaduwa area which depend on three sources of labour, family, attam and hired labour. Al l the adopters came under the category 1 and 2 o f the Table 4.13 and this shows that the adopters largely rely on hired labour compared to the farmers w h o s e predominant labour source is family or attam labour. A s in the case o f Mahaweli 'H', it appears that large scale commercial farmers who depend on hired labour are the category o f farmers who adopt this technology. Table 4.11: Sources of Labour in Nachchaduwa Area Labour Source Category Farmers No. % 1. Hired only 3 4.6 2. Hired & family/hired & attam 34 51.5 3. Family & hired/family, attam & hired 2 0 30.3 4. Family only/family & attam/attam & family 9 13.6 Total 66 100.0 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . Role of Extension in Awareness Creation Farmers in Nachchaduwa area were categorized based on the intensity o f exposure to extension methods as presented in the Table 4 .12. According to the data, only a few farmers were properly aware o f the parachute method though there had been a number o f awareness programmes directly conducted by the A l and the D O A . The other methods are mass communication methods including television, radio programs and leaflets. The majority have been made aware through the A l and the other methods. The Table 4.12 demonstrates the nature o f technology dissemination process in the Nachchaduwa area. There is a large variation in the intensity o f exposure of technology by the farming community. LIBRARY 24 HARTI Table 4.12: Farmer Exposure to Parachute Method in the Nachchaduwa Area Method of Awareness Creation Farmers Method of Awareness Creation No. % Awareness creation and demonstrations by Agriculture Instructor and other agencies + other methods 4 6.0 Awareness creation by Agriculture Instructor + other methods 32 48.5 Other methods only 18 27.3 N o any means 12 18.2 Total 66 100.0 Source: Survey Data, 2 0 0 9 . Survey also revealed that the only 3 1 % o f farming population had frequent contacts with Agricultural Instructors (Figure 4.5) and Agricultural Research and Production Assistants (Figure 4.6). The findings raise the question whether the present level of contacts between the farmers and the Extension Officers would adequately support the information dissemination process. Figure 4.5: Frequency of Meetings between Farmers and Agricultural Instructors in Nachchaduwa Area « 30 \ Once or More More than Once a Season Occasionally than Once Once a Season Fortnightly Frequency of meetings Source: Survey Data, 2009. 25 Figure 4.6: Frequency of Meetings between Farmers and Agricultural Research and Production Assistants in Nachchaduwa Area 60n 50 - 40H E ™ 30 o 10 - 45% 49% Once or more than once Fortnightly More than Once a Season 6% Once a Season Frequency of Meetings Source: Survey Data, 2009 . Farmer Skills In Nachchaduwa, all the adopters are skilled farmers and the majority o f farmers (48%) lack skills on the use o f new technology (Figure 4.7). Therefore, the role of extension in terms o f skill development is a pre-requisite for the adoption of parachute technology. Figure 4.7: Level of Farmer Skills on Parachute Method in Nachchaduwa Area 60 i No Skills Semi-skilled Highly skilled Level of Skills Source: Survey Data, 2009 . 26 Water Availability Assured water availability is a significant factor o f adoption o f parachute technology. A s revealed by the survey, the water availability for paddy cultivation in Nachchaduwa area slightly varies by season (Table 4.13) but 9 8 . 5 % receive sufficient water for cultivation during the maha season. Water availability in the yala season appears to be limited as only 53 fanners (80.3%) receive sufficient water. For the rest, the water is a limiting factor. Even though the Nachchaduwa scheme is a major irrigation scheme, the time o f issuing water to the paddy fields largely depends on the availability o f Mahaweli water to the Nachchaduwa tank. Hence , water availability is uncertain. Under such circumstances, the farmers do not w i sh to bear the risk o f investing on this technology which incurs an initial cost o f Rs . 8,262/ac at the rate of Rs. 27.00/tray and 306 trays per/acre. Table 4.13: Water Availability for Paddy Cultivation in Nachchaduwa Area Water Availability Farmers Water Availability No. % Yala Season 3. Adequate 53 80.3 4. Inadequate 13 19.7 5. Total 66 100.0 Maha Season 4. Adequate 65 98.5 5. Inadequate 1 1.5 6. Total 66 100.0 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . 4.6 Non-adopters View on Parachute Method A set o f farmers have indicated as to why they have not used the parachute method (Table 4 .14) . Poor knowledge o f farmers stemming from poor extension service is the main reason for not using this technology. Table 4.14: Reasons for not Using Parachute Method Reason for Use Mahaweli Nachchaduwa Area 'H' System No. %* No. %** Lack o f knowledge and skills 25 36.8 35 67.3 Technically not feasible 10 14.7 6 11.5 High cost 8 11.8 11 21 .2 Low yield 1 1.5 3 5.8 •Percentages out of the total number of farmers who did not use the technology = 34 ••Percentages out of the total number of farmers who did not use the technology and responded = 52 Source: Survey Data, 2009. 27 The majority w h o had not used the parachute method have pointed out many reasons for not adopting the method, among which lack o f knowledge and skills predominate. This is attributed to (a) lack o f demonstrations at close proximity (b) poor attention paid by farmer organization on awareness creation (c) delay in conducting o f awareness creation programmes by extension personnel and (d) lack o f knowledge about purchasing o f trays. D u e to all these, the farmers in both areas have lost interest and are not prone to using the new technology. Therefore, it is necessary to motivate these farmers through skill training. For some farmers, parachute method is not a feasible technology as the t ime o f water availability is uncertain more particularly in Nachchaduwa area. This is also not an appropriate technology for paddy lands without a deep layer o f top soil which makes finer land preparation difficult. During rainy days, seeds are washed away due to rain drops in nurseries. Observations have been made on all the difficulties faced by the technology users in nursery management particularly during rainy maha season. Further, this technology is not appropriate for yala season in which water is rationed and released for which the broadcasting method is only suited. For some farmers parachute method is a high cost technology as the nursery management process consumes more labour. The nursery has to be maintained for about 12-18 days and when family labour is not available, it involves a cost. This also happens when the farmers are involved in other occupations as the primary source of income. Purchase o f trays is essentially an additional cost item in the farm budget. In some occasions, the parachute method has failed due to damage o f nurseries as a result o f over fertilization and heavy rains leading to l o w yield. Those w h o have observed failures o f parachute methods have been discouraged to try out the new technology. 4.7 Scale of Operation of Parachute Method All the above difficulties have limited the area sown under the parachute technology. During the period o f practice o f parachute method, only 4 farmers (11.8%) out o f 34 parachute practitioners in Mahaweli area have used their total land area under this method. O f them, two have cultivated 5 ac each and the other two have cultivated 2.5 ac each. The majority o f farmers ( 8 8 . 2 % farmers in Mahaweli area) have not brought the total land area under this technology for many reasons as shown in the Table 4 .15. Use of this technology involves an additional cost but the farmer would lose unless weather conditions are favourable. Water scarcity at the initial stages enhances the weed competition, especially during yala season. 28 Table 4.15: Reasons for not Cultivating more Lands under Parachute Method Reason Mahaw Sysl eli 'H' em Nachchaduwa Area Reason No. %* No. %** Risky 21 61.8 1 10 Non-availability of trays 13 38.2 7 70 Scarcity o f labour 3 8.8 6 60 Other - - 3 30 •Percentages out of the total number of farmers who used the technology = 34 ** Percentages out of the total number of farmers who used the technology = 10 Source: Survey Data, 2 0 0 9 . In addition, there has been a shortage o f trays which can be attributed to both non­ availability and less affordability. The Mahaweli authority has distributed a limited number o f trays which had been sufficient for cultivation o f 0.5 ac of paddy land by each recipient. Those w h o took up the technology on trial basis have utilized a small piece o f land. However, in Nachchaduwa area most o f the farmers had not been able to find the required number o f trays. A s already discussed, the nursery management is difficult when labour is a scarce resource and therefore large scale cultivation under parachute method is impractical. Even though it is claimed that labour requirement is low in parachute method the real situation is somewhat different. Parachute method is a skilled technology but most farmers are not yet used to nursery management and broadcasting o f seedlings. Therefore, skilled farmers in Mahaweli area had a considerable demand from outside areas at the t ime o f survey. Further, parachute method requires finer land preparation. In the Nachchaduwa area, this is not possible in some fields which are situated on comparatively highlands. In addition, there are some other reasons for not cultivating a large area under the parachute method such as; a. Difficult in finding a suitable place for the nursery b. Damages by animals to nurseries c. Long distance between nursery and the paddy field. d. Delay in supply o f fertilizer subsidy. 4.8 Reasons for Poor Dissemination of Parachute Method All sample farmers were inquired about the reasons for lack o f widespread adoption o f the parachute method by a large majority o f farmers. According to Table 4 .16, it is due to four main reasons. 29 Table 4.16: Reasons for Non-adoption of Parachute Method by Farmers Reason Mahaweli 'H' Nachchaduwa System Area No. %* No. %** Weak communication process 32 47.1 54 81.8 Negative attitudes 39 57.4 22 33.8 Technically not feasible 30 44.1 20 28.8 Technology not profitable 12 17.6 7 10.6 •Percentages out of the total number of farmers = 68 ••Percentages out of the total number of fanners = 66 Source: Survey Data, 2009 . The role o f extension service in technology transfer as the S E N D E R of message is very vital. However, a considerable proportion o f farmers have pointed out the weakness o f the present communication process as one o f the reasons for non- adoption o f the particular technology. This situation has been described by the farming community in different forms as summarized below: a. Even though the parachute method was introduced to both areas, the farmers were not exposed to further training on field application. b. There is only one Agricultural Instructor to provide the extension service to a large number o f farmers but he is unable to reach the whole farming community. c. Demonstrations were limited to only certain areas o f the village and/or the number o f demonstrations was inadequate. d. Lack of/inadequate training programs for awareness building. e. Lack of/less attention to make farmers aware o f training/demonstrations. f. Attention was paid only to a selected group o f farmers. g. Lack o f attention on small scale farmers. h. Lack o f attention on continuous training and monitoring. i. Conflicts between farmer organizations and officials. j . Poor road network that discourage visiting remote areas by extension personnel. k. Poor involvement by Agricultural Research and Production Assistants (ARPAs) . 1. Weak status of farmer to farmer extension. Extension service to be effective, the RECEIVER of the message, the farmer, should be prepared to take up the message or the technology disseminated by the SENDER. However, the negative attitudes o f the RECEIVER have constrained the technology transfer process. According to farmers this includes several aspects both general and specific to the parachute technology and general to the extension service such as: a. Lack o f farmer interest to participate in the training programmes/training classes as they consider it a waste o f t ime. b. Unwil l ingness to try out new technologies/lethargic. c. The be l ie f that broadcasting is the best method and the perception that it was difficult to obtain high yield with a lesser amount o f seed paddy by parachute technology. 30 d. Requirement of more labour for the n e w technology. e. Fear o f uncertain weather conditions due to time taken for field establishment in parachute method after nursery management. f. The be l ie f that the technology does not suit to some o f the paddy fields with shal low soil layers. g. Negat ive thoughts that T should not fo l low what others have fol lowed'. h. Wil l ingness to use only i f incentives are provided with the new method. In addition to sender and receiver o f the M E S S A G E , the technology should be appropriate to be taken up by the receiver or the end user. In the case o f the parachute, the M E S S A G E should be appropriate in social, technical, environmental and economic terms. As revealed by the farmers, the parachute method has several shortcomings in technical and financial terms. Technically: a. Non-availability and less durability o f trays. b. Difficulty in nursery management during heavy rains. c. More t ime and labour requirement for nursery management. d. Inconvenience in nursery management. When high-land nurseries are established trays with seedlings should be transported to the paddy field. When mud nurseries are established, it is inconvenient and time consuming to take care o f the nurseries particularly when there is a considerable distance between residence and the nursery. When compared with broadcasting method, the farmers need to invest on trays for parachute technology which is an additional cost. Also nursery management requires more labour so that it increases the cost in real terms. 4.9 Suggestions to Promote Parachute Method Table 4.17 illustrates suggestions made by the farmers from both locations. Accordingly awareness building is the most important aspect whereas the farmers have also suggested some other issues required to be addressed. 4.9.1 Awareness Creation and Skill Training Farmers have proposed several suggestions regarding awareness creation and skill training: a. Increase the number o f initial awareness creation programs. b. Conduct timely awareness programs/group training aiming at maha season cultivation. c. Give priority for innovative, successful and dedicated farmers in extension programmes. d. Train more farmers/include small scale farmers/ landless farmers as wel l . 31 Table 4.17: Suggestions to Promote Parachute Method Reason Mahaweli 'H' Nachchaduwa System Area No. %* No. %** Awareness creation and skill training 49 72.1 63 95.5 Farmer incentives 35 51.5 20 30.3 Address water needs 7 10.3 - - Improve tray quality 4 5.9 1 .1.5 Make it compulsory 3 4.4 2 3.0 •Percentages out of the total number of farmers = 68 ** Percentages out of the total number of farmers = 66 Source: Survey Data, 2 0 0 9 . e. Adopt attractive means o f information dissemination such as banners, leaflets, loud speakers, television, and video through farmer organizations and cyber extension units. f. Demonstrate in each village/yoya/for each farmer organization/common places which are accessible to everyone. g. Supervise of training o f new persons by AO/AI h. Make frequent field visits to successful fields specially at harvesting time and develop interest among farmers. i. Educate the farmers about income and expenditure of parachute method and change their negative attitudes toward new technologies. j . Promote farmer to farmer extension through strengthening farmer organization which maintains c lose contacts with extension personnel, k. Supervise technology usage of farmers by extension personnel continuously. 1. Maintain frequent contacts between farmer and extension personnel. 4.9.2 Incentives for Farmers A s usual, the farmers suggested providing trays free o f charge or at subsidized rates. This will be practicable while introducing the technology into new areas. Further, they expected the government involvement on price determination of trays and subsidies for purchasing trays. 4.9.3 Address Water Issues Farmers expect t imely supply of water for parachute fields and increase the frequency of water releases. Some issues relating to water management require attention o f water management experts. 4.9.4 Improve Tray Quality and Availability There was a considerable request from the farmers to provide information on where they could obtain the trays. Some experienced farmers suggested that the tray quality should be improved so that they could use them for several years. At the moment, trays are used for 3-4 seasons only. Trays do not last long as they are much heavy at the t ime o f transportation with seedlings and 32 are damaged during the process. Therefore, the farmers request ensuring t imely availability o f low cost, durable trays made o f light materials. 4.9.5 Compulsory Use of New Technologies It is obvious that a higher yield can be obtained through the parachute method. Therefore, it should be popularized to achieve agricultural production targets. 4.10 Farmers View on Overall Extension System in the Area Farmers were interviewed about the present situation o f extension service and they pointed out several weaknesses as presented in Table 4.18. The table indicates that lack o f individual contact by extension staff with farming community is the main weakness in the present extension service. The situation is worse in Nachchaduwa area. This is a result o f a number o f factors ranging from: • Limited field visits by extension personnel • Inadequate extension staff/larger coverage by one officer/lack o f transport facilities. • Communication only with a limited group/omission o f small scale/landlless farmers • Poor level o f knowledge o f officers • Lack o f continuation/ac/ hoc knowledge dissemination process. Table 4.18: Major Weaknesses of Present Extension Service: From the Farmers Viewpoint Weakness Mahaweli 'H' Nachchaduwa area Weakness No. %* No. %** Weak farmer- extension personnel linkage 21 65 .6 49 86.0 Weak group and mass communication methods 10 31.3 31 54.4 Shortage o f information on inputs and implements 16 50.0 3 5.3 Lack o f dissemination o f new technologies 3 9.4 9 15.8 * No. responded in Mahaweli = 32 (47%) ** No. responded in Nachchaduwa area = 59 (86%) ***No. responded in provincial area = 66 (100%) Source: Survey Data, 2009 . Farmers have also voiced their opinion regarding group and mass communication methods. According to them, agriculture related programmes in electronic media are not available at the appropriate time. They have also pointed out weaknesses o f cyber extension units and access to field training programmes and demonstrations. 33 Even though some technologies are known to the farmers, the number of implements and inputs relating to such technologies are not easily accessible at the market. There is also the problem o f unavailability of such implements and inputs in time. Other problems are lack o f dissemination o f new knowledge and technologies relating to control o f pests and diseases, new high yielding varieties, resistant varieties, knowledge on selection o f pesticides and eco-friendly agriculture. 34 CHAPTER FIVE Conclusions and Recommendations Summary of Findings The adoption o f parachute technology by Mahaweli farmers is satisfactory. The binary logistic analysis used to find the impact o f various factors on adoption decision shows that, of the s ix variables used for the analysis, fanner skills, labour source, total land availability and input availability have a significant effect on adoption of parachute technology. Availability o f inputs, plastic trays, is a pre-requisite for the adoption o f this technology. Therefore, attention should be paid to popularize the technology among the farmers w h o could afford to purchase the trays. Only awareness creation is insufficient for widespread adoption o f parachute technology which demands skills for nursery management as skill training is critical before field application. Operators with access to sufficient labour tend to adopt the parachute method. Farmers perceive that parachute method is a labour demanding technology as it also involves nursery management. Water availability is an essential factor for parachute method which demands water during nursery period. Water is not a problem for Mahaweli areas where water is abundantly available but in Nachchaduwa area water scarcity was reported as a key constraint for the adoption of parachute technology. Total land availability becomes a significant determinant o f the adoption o f parachute technology. This means that large scale operators appear to be progressive and innovative so that they show increased interest to take up new technologies. Awareness creation and skill training on parachute technology in the Mahaweli system is very effective. In the Nachchaduwa area, the level o f awareness creation is higher but skill training on the technology is insufficient. This indicates only awareness is insufficient to create an interest among the large majority o f fanners to adopt the technology. Seedling vigour, increased tillering and high yield are the favored characteristics o f the technology. In the Mahaweli area there is a significant yield difference at 95% confidence interval compared to broadcasting method. Yield increase is 77.5%. From the non-adopters point o f view, lack o f knowledge and skills is one o f the reasons for not adopting the parachute technology. A s reported from 35 Nachchaduwa area, drawbacks in the dissemination process of parachute technology are; inadequacy of demonstrations, lack o f broader outlook on awareness creation programs, delays in conducting awareness programs, lack o f information on obtaining inputs and raw materials, staff shortages, inadequacy o f Extension Officers leading to limited farm visits, lack o f regular training on field application of technologies, and obtaining feedback. • Wherever water is a scarce resource and a limiting factor and when soil is sandy, the technology has been rejected. Heavy rainfall also constraints nursery management. • Whilst the technology requires special skills and when the farmers are not adequately skilled, they have not adopted the technology. Additional cost o f trays is another drawback for technology adoption. • Negat ive attitudes o f the end-user both general and specific to the parachute technology have also constrained the dissemination o f technology. These attitudes are; lack o f interest for participating in training programs, or training classes which are considered as a waste o f time, lethargic attitude o f farmers towards new technologies , fixed attitudes such as broadcasting is the best method and high yield cannot be obtained with a lesser quantity of seeds and other reasons such as unnecessary fear o f weather conditions and dependent nature o f seeking incentives. Non durability of trays, more time and labour needs for nursery management and inconvenience o f nursery management are other constraints of parachute technology. • All the above factors determine the area to be cultivated under the parachute technology. Given the situation parachute technology suits a small land area around 0.5 ac. • Proper awareness building followed by skill training, and solving problems relating to input needs are required to promote the adoption o f the parachute method. Water availability is a critical factor in this technology and therefore attempts to introduce the technology should be limited to cultivation seasons and areas where water availability is assured. • In general, the demonstrations are conducted in the fields of progressive farmers who adopt the technology with minimum failures. Survey findings uncover this as a successful process for dissemination o f technologies in the farming community. • Overall, the weak extension services in educating farmers through individual, group and mass methods, poor availability o f information on inputs and output markets, lack o f dissemination o f new technologies are the major constraints in the present extension system. 5.2 Conclusions The dissemination process o f parachute technology should be a well-planned process which needs regular awareness creation and skill development programs that result in 36 attitudinal and behavioural changes among the farmers. Knowledge , skills, inputs and market needs should be t imely and adequately ensured so that the farmer is well equipped with all the elements o f the technological package at the time he is ready to use the n e w technology. The entire technology dissemination process should seek a constructive change in the knowledge management system. With the changed management system, the technologies should rapidly penetrate the farming locations enabling farmers to self realization o f the feasibility o f such technologies with limited time and effort by the extension personnel. 5.3 Recommendations • Introduction o f parachute method to other areas where timely availability of water is assured. • Awareness building followed by skill training/demonstrations in the fields o f innovative farmers to promote the adoption o f the parachute method. • Ensure t imely availability o f trays in the areas o f introduction o f the technology. • Action to promote the production or imports o f durable and low cost trays used for parachute method. • Reorganization and strengthening o f entire technology transfer process through an innovative approach o f knowledge management. 37 References Agresti, Alan. (1996) . An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis. John Wiley and Sons. Inc. Department o f Customs (2009) . External Trade Statistics. 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